Pham Thi Thom1
Abstract: Until the first half of the nineteenth century, Vietnam's diplomatic relation with the Qing Dynasty (China) was the most profound in the relationships with countries in Asia, and at the same time it dominated and had an impact on all of Vietnam's relations with other countries. This paper focuses on tribute activities in Lang Son province in the first half of the nineteenth century to clarify the profound role of Lang Son in the tribute activity of Nguyen Dynasty (Vietnam) to Qing Dynasty (China).
Keywords: Nguyen Dynasty, Qing Dynasty, Lang Son, Diplomatic Relations, Tribute
1. Activities of tribute under the Nguyen dynasty in the first half of the 19th century
In the history of diplomatic relations between Vietnam and China up to the Nguyen Dynasty (1802-1945), the act of tribute and lordship granting was the most important diplomatic relationship between the two countries. “This is a special kind of relationship, the world witnessed only in the relationship between China and its neighboring countries which Vietnam is often considered a typical example2”.
Tribute is the act China monarchy gave a title to its well-dominated country. Although Vietnam and China already had long diplomatic and other relations for a long time, in reality, the practice of tribute actually started from the 10th century. In the book Lịch triều hiến chương loại chí (Categorized Records of the Institutions of Successive Dynasties), Phan Huy Chu wrote: “Vietnam established diplomatic relation with China from Hung Kings, but it was kept out because its size and influence were too small to be considered. When Vietnam was conquered by Zhao Tuo, the Han Dynasty promoted him the Nam Viet lord, but the territory was registered as its dependent territory other than a country. Later, the region was merged into the Han, the Tang Dynasty and became a district. When Dinh Tien Hoang pacified the warlords, restored and expanded the territory, then the Chinese monarchy started to treat it as a country3”.
The Vietnam king received the tribute from China called ordination. Whenever a new king ascended the throne, he had to send an envoy to China to ask for the ordination, then the Chinese king sent an envoy to Vietnam to practice the ordination. During the Nguyen Dynasty, the ceremony of receiving such titles was called the grand ordination ceremony. Upon receiving the title, the Vietnam king formalized his position in relations with China and at the same time performed his “tribute” obligations and sent regular envoys’ visit to China. However, the activities of asking- giving ordination only lasted until 1885 (under the reign of king Tu Duc) when France and China signed the Tianjin Treaty to permanently end the superior-inferior relation between China and Vietnam.
Ordination was one of the two diplomatic activities that Nguyen Dynasty carefully prepared. The first preparation work was at the stage of dispatch documents such as letters of correspondence and diplomatic credentials. Subsequently, the Nguyen court sent a delegation to China to ask for the title4. When the Vietnam envoy arrived in Beijing, he met the Chinese Emperor and, if the head of China approved such request, basically the envoy had completed the mission. The Qing would then send an envoy leading a delegate to Vietnam carrying the ordinance. The ordination ceremony will be held in Hanoi, Vietnam. From the reign of Gia Long king (1802- 1820) to Tu Duc king (1847-1883), Vietnam had 4 ordinations in 1804, 1821, 1842 and 1849.
With tribute activities, up to the beginning of the nineteenth century, they were considered an instrument for the Nguyen Dynasty to show the diplomatic and close relationship of the feudal state of Vietnam toward China. This activity was strictly regulated by both sides. Regarding the frequency of tribute, Gia Long stipulated that every 2 years Vietnam sent the delegate to China, but during Minh Mang reign (1820-1841), it was changed to every 4 years. In the 20th year under Minh Mang reign, the Qing king asked Vietnam change the custom of paying tribute from once every 2 years, sending an envoy to China bringing the above-mentioned tribute with him once every 4 years. Instead, the tribute happened every four years5. In the Nguyen Dynasty, the Foreign Affairs was responsible for the number of envoys in the delegate to China. The number of envoys in a tribute delegate included 1 chief envoy, 2 deputy envoys, 8 officers, 9 retainers6 (under Gia Long reign) and 3 envoys7, 3 clerks, 9 practitioners, 15 retainers8 (under Minh Mang reign). They were all good literary officials, talented in reciprocity, recommended by the courtiers and Nguyen kings authorized. The chief envoy was often the minister of Foreign Affairs or head of literary department.
In the first half of the nineteenth century, tribute activities were conducted regularly by the Nguyen Dynasty. According to Đại Nam thực lục (True Records of Vietnam), during the reign of Gia Long, Vietnam sent four tribute delegates to China in 1805, 1809, 1813, and 1817 (the tribute in 1805 was combined with thanks service in 1804). During the Minh Mang reign, China allowed the tribute of the year 1821 to get done in 1825. During Minh Mang reign, Vietnam paid tribute in 1825, 1829, 1833, and 1837. Under the Thieu Tri period (1841-1847), the Qing dynasty exempted tribute in 1841 and 1845. Tu Duc was crowned in 1847, he took 1848 as the first year of Tu Duc reign and sent envoys to China to perform the duty of tribute in 1849, 1853 and 18579.
It can be affirmed that the activities of tribute represented a symbol of peace and stability in relations between Vietnam and China in the first half of the 19th century. In Bang Giao Chiếu (Notice on National Diplomatic Affair), King Tu Duc reaffirmed the goal of "keeping stability for people, the country having peace" and alleged that "without stable diplomatic relation, the border areas and Thang Long citadel will be disturbed and may suffer war disasters10”. That shows the relationship between big and small countries in feudal period. The small country had to pay tribute for its peace, as Phan Huy Chu wrote: “Vietnam is in the South and it has a diplomatic relationship with China. That the king called himself the lord when dealing with China, and emperor in dealing with domestic issues, is appropriate, in regard to actual situation of its own scale of population and area. Therefore, tributes and diplomatic relationship are considered important in all dynasties11”.
2. The role of Lang Son in tribute activities
2.1. Lang Son, the route of sending and receiving envoys
Most roads of Vietnam and China envoys in tribute were through Lang Son. This is not only the main gateway for trade between Vietnam and China, but it also plays an important role in national security and defense. It is the geographic position of Lang Son, the frontier for all the exchange with the big country claimed to be the superior in the North, that makes it the center of attention12.
In the legendary Hung Kings, this area was called Luc Hai13. Under the Ly Dynasty (1009-1225), Lang Son was known as Lang province. Through ups and downs of history, it was called Lang Son town the 10th year of Quang Thai (1397). After the success struggle against Ming Dynasty, in the first year of Thuan Thien (1428), the Le Dynasty divided the country into 5 parts in which Lang Son belonged to the North area, and then it was a province. Lang Son province had a head town called Truong Khanh and 7 towns including Loc Binh, Thoat Lang, Van Uyen, That Nguyen, Yen Bac and Yen. Under Le Trung Hung reign, Lang Son was officially a town. At the beginning of the Nguyen Dynasty, Lang Son still had 1 head town and 7 districts14, all belonged to the North area.
Lang Son province was recorded in the book Đại Nam nhất thống chí (Geographic book of Dai Nam), volume 24: “The East and the West are 171 miles apart, 86 miles from the North to the South. (From its center) to the East to the mountain Tha Lan, Chau Tien Yen, Quang Yen province is 90 miles; to the west (Xa Khong mountain, Vu Nhai district, Thai Nguyen province) is 81 miles; to the South (Ba Lanh pass, Huu Lung district, Bac Ninh province) is 56 miles; to the North (Guǎngxī of China) is 30 miles; to the Southeast (Quang Yen and Hai Duong provinces) is 118 miles; to the Southwest (Huu Lung district, Bac Ninh province) 66 miles; to the Northeast (Quang Yen province and border of China) is 45 miles; to the Northwest (Thai Nguyen and Cao Bang provinces) is 134 miles; to capital (Hue) is 1,756 miles”15. In the 12th year of Minh Mang (1832), Lang Son was officially a province, with 2 head towns (Trang Khanh and Trang Dinh), and some districts. Under Tu Duc reign, Lang Son had two head towns: Trang Khanh (consisted of Loc Binh, On inter-districts and Yen Bac district), and Trang Dinh (consisted of Van Uyen, Thoat Lang inter-districts and Van Quan, That Khe districts).
Lang Son province is located on National Highway 1A from Hanoi to Nam Quan pass, 150 km from Hanoi and 18 km from Nam Quan (Vietnam - China border). The National Road 1A was formerly known as Thien Ly (also Lai Kinh) street, this traffic axis was established very early. According to the book Sử học bị khảo (History studies - Geology) of Dang Xuan Bang, this road was at least completed since the beginning of the 11th century (in 1019, the last section was completed from the frontier of Chi Lang to the Vietnam-China border). This is the nearest and most convenient route from Vietnam to the mainland of China. Therefore, in the course of diplomatic relations under Vietnam and China monarchy, envoys mainly followed this path16.
During the process of diplomatic relations between Vietnam and China, Lang Son's name appeared frequently in edict, official dispatch, and paperwork between the two sides. The rout of Vietnam envoys to China over periods may change slightly but the role and position of Nam Quan pass and Lang Son province were unchanged. Most of the delegations had to stop at the Nam Quan gate to rest and carry out the procedures before entering or leaving Vietnam.
From the thirteenth to the early fifteenth centuries, envoys of Tran and Later Le dynasties often went through Guangdong province. Departing from the Nam Quan gate, the envoy passed Guangxi province to Guangzhou provincial town (in Guangdong), then Jiangxi, Zhejiang, Jiangsu, Shandong, and Chih-li provinces17. From 1860, during the Qing Dynasty, envoys of Later Le Dynasty (1532-1788) often entered China through Guangxi. Leaving Nam Quan, they reached Guangdong and Guangxi and down the Yangtze to Beijing18. In 19th century, the book Khâm định Đại Nam hội điển sự lệ (Compendium of institutions and administrave cases of Dai Nam) also had similar records of envoys from Vietnam to China through Guangxi. This road started from Hue Imperial Capital to Hanoi, Bac Ninh, Lang Son, Nam Quan Pass to Guangxi land and Beijing. When the envoys go through any province, the local administration had to send soldiers to escort the delegate. The same was for the return leg, but in the opposite order19.
In the book Histoire des Relations de la Chine avec l'Annam - Viêtnam du XVIe au XIXe siècle (History of relations between China and Vietnam from the sixteenth to the nineteenth centuries) published in 1980 in Paris by G. Devéria20, he revealed a decree issued by the Qing Dynasty in 1667 regarding the route of envoys from Vietnam to China. The decree required Vietnam envoys go through Guangxi province. In 1726, Yongzheng Emperor regulated that Vietnam’s envoys carrying tributes would be granted a travel document by Guangxi provincial governor to travel to Beijing. When leaving the capital, the Chinese court would issue a new travel document for them return home in the old route. In 1804, Vietnam envoys brought tribute through the Nam Quan Pass and went by road to Guangxi, and then by river to Beijing21.
Chinese envoys to Vietnam could travel by river mainly from Guangdong province, or by road from Yunnan province, but the most route was from Pingxiang, Guangxi through Nam Quan gate to Pha Luy (Dong Dang), Lang Son, Hanoi and then by waterway to Hue capital through ports of Bac Thanh, Nam Dinh, Thanh Hoa, Quang Tri to Hue. When they returned home, they could keep the same route, or sometimes they went to Bac Ninh and then returned to China by waterway22.
Most of the trade routes between China and Vietnam were opened by the Chinese authority during the expeditions to invade Vietnam from the Han Dynasty (221-206 BC) to the Qing Dynasty (1636-1912). During the Nguyen Dynasty, envoys of the two sides most used the road connected Guangxi and Vietnam. From Guangxi, there are three possible routes to Vietnam, all through Lang Son province.
The first route was from Pingxiang, Guangxi through Nam Quan Pass, Pha Luy, Lang Son and it took a day to Thang Long. Starting from North of Wenzhou, they could go through Quy Mon Quan (Chi Lang gate), Tan Le, across Nhi Thap River to Bao Loc, An Viet district and then to Thang Long by road or waterway.
The second route was from Bianqiang (Guangxi) and it took a day to Loc Binh, Lang Son. In the west of this capital, it took a day to go along the road to Lang Son. If taking the east road, they had to go cross the Thien Ly River, spent another day and a half to An Bac inter-district, then Phong Nhan district. From here, there were two roads: the first to Bao Loc, An Viet; the second to Lang Son.
The third route was from Longzhou (Guangxi) through Binh Nhi gate, then That Uyen, An Viet district, a day walk to Tu Son district, through Dong Ngan, Gia Lam and other districts to go across Phu Luong River to enter Hue23.
It can be seen that during tribute activities in the first half of the nineteenth century, most delegations of both sides had to go through Lang Son. Arriving in Lang Son, they had to stop for at least a day before going on, all activities were strictly monitored by the provincial administration and the court. This proves that Lang Son appeared as an intermediary bridge connecting all diplomatic, tribute activities of the Vietnamese and Chinese courts.
2.2. Lang Son and the modes of receiving the Qing envoys
2.2.1. Ritual for immigration and entry of envoys in Lang Son Organizing the arrival or departure of envoys was a major task of the court, but Lang Son province had to prepare a lot of work in immigration formalities and interact with the delegation. Phan Huy Chu once considered Lang Son to be a big town, there were several times delegations stopped in Lang Son (not Thang Long or China) to deal with the affair. The reception of envoys was important, it showed how a country respected such relationship24. Therefore, in the edict of the Nguyen Dynasty, it clearly guided all the tasks that Lang Son province had to perform with the Vietnamese and Chinese delegations.
For Vietnamese envoys to go to the Qing Dynasty, before each trip, Lang Son province had to send a dispatch to Guangxi governor asking about the opening day of the immigration office. In 1842, Thieu Tri king emphasized that “Lang Son province had to prepare all official letters sent to Guangxi province of Qing Dynasty25”. Next, local soldiers in the province collected supplies (which had been allocated), took wealth from the provincial treasury, prepared gifts for the delegation to worship at temples26. After receiving a reply from the Guangxi province governor, the delegation headed to Lang Son province and waited. On the day of opening the Nam Quan gate, the envoy and his officers escorted the national letter and the carriage to the gate.
On the day the delegation went to the gate, the officials of Lang Son had to be with the envoys. The two sides often had fireworks to welcome each other. After the ceremony took place at Zhaode station in Chinese territory, the Qing mandarins invited all Nguyen’s envoys and servants to have a tea party in the backyard. The envoy returned to Nghenh Duc tower in Vietnam territory to say goodbye to all people, then they passed the gate at noon27. Then Lang Son governor retreated, the Chinese closed the border, and the envoy set out for the Chinese capital.
After the envoys left Vietnam, the tasks were done but Lang Son province still had to receive letters from the envoys. In Khâm định Đại Nam hội điển sự lệ (Compendium of institutions and administrave cases of Dai Nam) wrote: “When envoys from Hanoi went to the border, they had to send a message. When they went to the provinces of Hubei and Guangxi (China), they also had to report details of their journey and local officer to Lang Son province, the same with the return leg. When coming to Beijing, they presented diplomatic credential and received conferring, the usual and additional awards to bring home for Vietnam king28.
The day Vietnam envoy returned home, Chinese administration had to submit an official dispatch, specifying the date and time of opening the customs gate to Lang Son province. The dispatch included a letter from the Vietnamese envoy and a list of the number of boxes the mission will bring back. An official representing Lang Son brought soldiers coming to customs gate to receive the boxes and welcomed the envoy home29.
When the Qing envoy came to Vietnam to confer the title, the court spent the highest priority for preparation. Consequently, Lang Son province was also responsible for serving and escorting on arrival and departure. Normally, Chinese envoys informed Vietnam in advance, so Vietnam sent a delegation to receive them at Lang Son.
When the Qing envoy invited the mandarins to meet him, the official of Lang Son province and his secretaries came to Zhaodetower to perform national etiquette. Qing envoy invited them to the back room and brought poems and gifts to celebrate the escorting members and made a salute ceremony. After sending the goods, they immediately brought the bodyguards to bring the incense, alter and music orchestra to Zhaode tower. Qing envoy brought three ordinances in three different dishes on which crafted the dragon. Both Qing and Vietnam fired three fireworks and then got through the gate. Soldiers got three shots into the air and followed the march, preceded large drums. The weapons were brought first, then music orchestra band without playing any music. Then sword, palanquin, and horses of staff came. Upon arriving at Lang Mai house, the local officials brought items to celebrate the Qing envoy30.
All envoys who reached the border usually rested a day before travelling to mainland Vietnam. In 1842, a Qing envoy paid a diplomatic visit and gave a written notice. The court sent Nguyen Cuu Duc and Dao Tri to welcome him, and the two officials then sent the dispatch straight to Thieu Tri King without informing Lang Son office. The chief of Lang Son, Tran Ngoc Dao, argued that this was unlawful and King Thieu Tri acknowledged that Nguyen Cuu Duc and Dao Tri were wrong31. When the Chinese envoy returned, a delegation sent him off to Lang Son without coming out of the customs gate.
2.2.2. The etiquette for envoys at Lang Son
To welcome Chinese envoys, the Nguyen Dynasty built administrative hotels and stations spread from Lang Son. It became a place to interact and treat Vietnam and China envoys in which buildings in the border region play the most important role. In 1805, Gia Long stipulated: “Qing envoys should go from Lang Son province to Bac Ninh province, sets up rest stations in Dong Dang, Lang Mai, Lang Nhan, Bac Hoa, Bac Can, Bac My, Bac Liem, Gia Thuy plus 8 departments” 32. Preparing for the ordination ceremony in 1847 in Hue, Tu Duc king “required Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Ministry of Public Affairs discuss the construction, repairing roads, bridges, roadside stations, display in all the rest stations from Tri Thien to Lang Son”33. There were six rest stations from Bac Ninh to Lang Son, namely Bac Liem, Bac My, Bac Can, Bac Hoa, Lang Nhan, Lang Mai34.
In Lang Son, there were 4 rest stations, each station was divided into 2 areas plus 12 adjacent buildings, each with 5 compartments and 2 leaners. Dong Dang rest station was a square building, on the left and right it had 4 buildings of 5 rooms in the style of 2 tiles roofs. During the reign of Tu Duc king, rest station for envoys had 3 big compartments and 2 small compartments, in the frontage there were 5 big compartments and 2 small wings integrated into 1 building with 10 compartments. For deputy envoy, the accommodation was 2 buildings consisting of 3 big compartments and 2 wing rooms. The kitchen was a room with 2 wings, the house had 4 rooms, horse house was 3 rooms, house for receptionist officer was a building with 5 rooms and 2 wings, the 6 rooms linked to each other35.
Furniture in the rest station usually included: 12 beds, 4 seats, 4 small tables, 40 cork plates, 20 large trays, 20 tea trays, 40 large pots, 40 small pots, 200 big bowls, 200 small bowls, 200 spoons, 200 teacups, 200 cups, 16 pots, 40 arcs, 40 cups of oil for lighting, 20 kilos of candles, 400 pairs of chopsticks, while local officials always sufficiently provide water, oil, lamps36.
The public stations were not only a resting place for the envoys, but also a feast for the locals. To meet the court requirements regarding the amount of dishes, local administration had to prepare good white rice 40 kg, white rice 340 kg, green bean 50 kg, yellow bean 100 kg, wine 150 kg, one Siamese duck , 40 ducks, 40 chicken, 38 starlings, 260 kg pork, 7 kg fat pork, 60 eggs, 160duck eggs, 30 fresh fish and 30 dried mackerel, 130 dried shrimp string, 70 kg beans filler, 3 kg white vermicelli, 1 kg scent37, 2 kg raw onions, white sugar 25 kg, vermicelli 3 kgs, 12 baskets of raw vegetables, 12 kg raw ginger, garlic 40 kg, 1 kg pepper, 30 kg vinegar, 30 kg salt, 40 kg fish sauce, 20 kg soy sauce, 7 kg tea (including 1 kg premium tea, 6 kg excellent tea), 500 areca fruit, betel leaf 1,000 leaves, 8 taels of lime, 42 pairs of candle (including 2 large pairs, 12 medium- sized pairs, 28 small-sized pairs), 16 kg soybean oil, 60 kg oil, 5 bundles of wick, 10 kg charcoal, 600 kg wood charcoal, 90 bundles of wood, 4 drawers of paddy and 80 horse grass38.
At the beginning of Gia Long Dynasty, there was a regulation that “the provincial authorities had to serve the Qing envoy 3 dishes of cooked food when they arrived and returned home39”. In 1848, a Qing envoy40 visited Lang Mai rest station, the mandarins welcomed him carefully41 with gifts and documents, kneeing one time and bowing three times. Then, officials in Lang Son province greeted him and served him 3 dishes of cooked food as usual, each of 14 dishes including bird's nest, sea cucumber, abalone, deer tendon, pork, meat of small pig, pig's heart, chicken, ducks, pigeons, fish, chicken hearts, duck hearts, pigeon hearts.
However, the work of receiving delegations in and out of Nam Quan is more than that. Lang Son province also had to provide goods whenever the envoys arrived or went from the Nam Quan gate that many provinces did not need to care. In addition to the items prepared by the court, which were transferred from capital to the border, Lang Son province had to prepare 24 pieces of silk, 20 kg cinnamon, 40 boxes of fragrant wax by tortoise, 0.8 kg fragrant wax, 80 fans made of ivory, 40 elephant tail hairs coated with silver, 20 taels of silver, a kg platinum42. For the Qing envoy returning home, the official of Lang Son gave more 10 buffaloes, 10 goats and 10 pigs, 10 boxes of rice and 20 kg wine43.
It can be seen that, in the first half of the nineteenth century, the reception and feasting the Qing envoys on their arrival and departure was strictly enforced by Lang Son local authority. Though all regulations of receiving envoys were governed by the court, the role of Lang Son in the relationship between Vietnam-China was undeniable.
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The geographic location regarding defense had put Lang Son in a position to deal with China in many activities. Throughout a long period of history, no matter how Lang Son was administered as a town, a district, a province, it remained the central region throughout the 1,200 km long border with China, especially in tribute activities. This land witnessed most frequents the entrance - arrival of envoys between Vietnam and China.
During the Nguyen dynasty, tribute became one of the important activities in diplomatic relations between the two countries. With the specific roles and tasks set by the court in the document, Lang Son can be considered the "most active land" along the Vietnam - China border through tribute activities with China in the first half of the 19th century.
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1 Master, University of Social Sciences and Humanities, Vietnam National University, Hanoi
2 Dinh Thi Dung (2001), Diplomatic relations of the Nguyen Dynasty in the first half of the 19th century, Doctoral dissertation of History, University of Education, Ho Chi Minh City, pp. 37-38.
3 Phan Huy Chu [Institute of Historical Translations] (2007), Lịch triều hiến chương loại chí (Categorized Records of the Institutions of Successive Dynasties), Education Publishing House, Hanoi, pp. 534-535.
4 Including a chief envoy and two deputy envoys.
5 Nguyen Dynasty Ministry of Interior (1993), Khâm định Đại Nam hội điển sự lệ (Compendium of institutions and administrave cases of Dai Nam), Vol. 8, p311.
6 Nguyen Dynasty Ministry of Interior, Khâm định Đại Nam hội điển sự lệ (Compendium of institutions and administrave cases of Dai Nam), Vol. 8, p.305.
7 The delegation consisted of a chief envoy, two deputy envoys.
8 Nguyen Dynasty Ministry of Interior, Khâm định Đại Nam hội điển sự lệ (Compendium of institutions and administrave cases of Dai Nam), Vol. 8, p. 308.
9 However, Sun Hongnian (孫宏年) in A Study of Sino Vietnamese Relationship in Qing Dynasty (清代中越宗藩關繫研究) suggested a different number. There were four tributes under Gia Long reign, but there were five tributes under Minh Mang reign in 1824, 1828, 1832, 1836, and 1840. Under Thieu Tri reign, there was only one tribute in 1844. Under Tu Duc reign (1840- 1858), there was also one tribute in 1852 because of Heavenly Dynasty issues.
10 Dinh Thi Dung (2001), Diplomatic relations of the Nguyen Dynasty in the first half of the 19th century, Doctoral dissertation of History, University of Education, Ho Chi Minh City, p. 36.
11 Phan Huy Chu [Institute of Historical Translations] (2007), Lịch triều hiến chương loại chí (Categorized Records of the Institutions of Successive Dynasties), Education Publishing House, Hanoi, p. 533.
12 People's Committee of Lang Son Province (1990), Lang Son Town, past and present, Lang Son, p. 19.
13 The issue regarding area size of Luc Hai (now Lang Son) in Hung legendary time is not clear. When Han dynasty conquered South, Lang Son belonged to Giao Chi prefecture.
14 Head town Trang Khanh and On Chau, Loc Binh, Thoat Lang, Van Quan, That Tuyen, An Bac. Its main road is still Doan thanh.
15 Nguyen Dynasty National History Association (2006), Đại Nam nhất thống chí (Geographic book of Dai Nam), Vol. 4, Thuan Hoa Publishing House, Hue, p. 424.
16 Institute of History (1989), Ancient towns of Vietnam, p.168.
17 Song Bang (1943), Brief history of envoys between Vietnam and China, National Publishing House, Hanoi, p.50.
18 Regarding itinerary of Vietnam envoys from Thang Long to Nam Quan, the book Bắc sứ thông lục (Records of diplomatic voyage to China), Vol.1 mentions the delegation of 1760 (chief envoy Tran Huy Mat, deputy Le Quy Don and Trinh Xuan Thu) with 22 officers and 675 porters started from Nhi Ha River to Ai Mo (Gia Lam) to Nam Quan. Along the road, there were notable rest stations: Ai Mo (Gia Lam), Thi Cau (Kinh Bac), Chi Lang (Lang Son), Nam Quan. As of administrative units, the delegation went across Thang Long– Gia Lam – Dong Ngan – Vu Giang – Yen Dung – Bao Loc – Nam Quan.
19 Nguyen Dynasty Ministry of Interior, Khâm định Đại Nam hội điển sự lệ (Compendium of institutions and administrave cases of Dai Nam), Vol. 8, pp. 315-316.
20 Chief interpreter of French diplomatic delegation in China cum correspondent of French schools for Oriental.
21 G. Devéria (1980), Histoire des Relations de la Chine avec l'Annam - Việtnam du XVIe au XIXe siècle (History of relations between China and Vietnam from 16th to 19th centuries), Ernest Leroux Editeur, Paris, pp. 60-61.
22 Nguyen Dynasty Ministry of Interior, Khâm định Đại Nam hội điển sự lệ (Compendium of institutions and administrave cases of Dai Nam), Vol. 8, pp. 366-368.
23 Song Bang (1943), Brief history of envoys between Vietnam and China, National Publishing House, Hanoi, pp. 73, 74; G. Devéria, Histoire des Relations de la Chine avec l’Annam – Viêtnam du XVIe au XIXe siècle, pp. 79- 80; Dang Xuan Bang (1997), Historical Examination, Information and Culture Publishing House, Hanoi, pp. 280-281.
24 People's Committee of Lang Son Province (1990), Lang Son Town, past and present, Lang Son, p. 66.
25 Nguyen Dynasty Ministry of Interior, Khâm định Đại Nam hội điển sự lệ (Compendium of institutions and administrave cases of Dai Nam), Vol. 8, p. 320.
26 Regarding temples and pagodas from Chi Lang to Dong Dang, envoys had to pay visit, they especially had to serve those in Ky Cung River and temple worshiping Mao General (no longer exists).
27 Hoang Phuong Mai (2013), "Diary of the Nguyen Dynasty envoy to the Qing Dynasty: A rich source of information about the history of Vietnamese-Chinese relations in the nineteenth century" in Proceedings of the Fourth Vietnam Studies Conference, Social Sciences Publishing House, Hanoi, 449-463.
28 Nguyen Dynasty Ministry of Interior, Khâm định Đại Nam hội điển sự lệ (Compendium of institutions and administrave cases of Dai Nam) Vol. 8, p. 306.
29 From 1833, this was under the control of Lang Son court.
30Nguyen Dynasty Ministry of Interior, Khâm định Đại Nam hội điển sự lệ (Compendium of institutions and administrave cases of Dai Nam), Vol. 8, p. 325.
31 People's Committee of Lang Son Province (1990), Lang Son Town, past and present, Lang Son, p. 71.
32 Nguyen Dynasty Ministry of Interior, Khâm định Đại Nam hội điển sự lệ (Compendium of institutions and administrave cases of Dai Nam), Vol. 8, p. 362.
33 Center for National Culture Studies (2003), Châu bản triều Tự Đức (Documents of Tu Duc Reign (1848 - 1883)), Literature Publishing House Hanoi, p. 22.
34 Nguyen Dynasty Ministry of Interior, Khâm định Đại Nam hội điển sự lệ (Compendium of institutions and administrave cases of Dai Nam), Vol. 8, p. 363.
35 Nguyen Dynasty Ministry of Interior, Khâm định Đại Nam hội điển sự lệ (Compendium of institutions and administrave cases of Dai Nam), Vol. 8, p. 363.
36 Song Bang (1943), Brief history of envoys between Vietnam and China, National Publishing House, Hanoi, p.82.
37 Perhaps it is herb in general.
38 Nguyen Dynasty Ministry of Interior, Khâm định Đại Nam hội điển sự lệ (Compendium of institutions and administrave cases of Dai Nam), Vol. 8, p.353.
39 Nguyen Dynasty Ministry of Interior, Khâm định Đại Nam hội điển sự lệ (Compendium of institutions and administrave cases of Dai Nam), Vol. 8, p. 356.
40 The delegation consisted of Chief of Guangxi officer, two deputy envoys and more than one thousand people (porter, interpreters, doctors, secretaries, cooks) and lots of elephants, horses.
41 Documents and letters.
42 Nguyen Dynasty Ministry of Interior, Khâm định Đại Nam hội điển sự lệ (Compendium of institutions and administrave cases of Dai Nam), Vol. 8, p. 312-313.
43 Nguyen Dynasty Ministry of Interior, Khâm định Đại Nam hội điển sự lệ (Compendium of institutions and administrave cases of Dai Nam), Vol. 8, p. 313.
REFERENCES
1. Dang Xuan Bang (1997), Sử học bị khảo (History studies- Geology), Information and Culture Publishing House, Hanoi.
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3. Dinh Thi Dung (2001), Diplomatic relations of the Nguyen Dynasty in the first half of the 19th century, Doctoral dissertation of History, University of Education, Ho Chi Minh City.
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Sources cited: JOURNAL OF Vietnam Review of Northeast Asian Studies, Vol. 8 – 2020.
